Alexander the Great and the Pharaoh of Egypt: A Historical Reevaluation

When Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BCE, the Pharaoh was Darius III of Persia. At first glance, it may seem that Alexander directly overthrew the Egyptian throne, but the truth is more complex. While Darius III was the Persian king, Egypt had been conquered by the Persians earlier, making it a satrapy (a province) of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This historical context is crucial for understanding the relationship between Alexander and the Pharaoh.

The Persian Influence in Egypt

The ancient Egyptians had not enjoyed independence for some time. In 525 BCE, under the leadership of Cambyses II, the Persians had conquered Egypt, installing Persian rulers who were often less interested in Egyptian customs and more in maintaining their control over the rich Nile Valley. By the time Alexander arrived, Egypt, while governed by Persian satraps, was still seen as a vital part of the Persian Empire. The Egyptian clergy had long seen the Persian kings as legitimate successors, a belief that continued to hold sway.

Alexander's Arrival and the Persian King

When Alexander III of Macedon entered Egypt, he was met with little resistance and was welcomed as a liberator. This welcome was due in part to the long-standing resentment against Persian rule. It is a common misconception that Alexander directly deposed the Pharaoh. In reality, the actual governance of Egypt at the time was the responsibility of a Persian satrap named Mazakes. He handed the country over to Alexander without a significant struggle, recognizing the potential for a more favorable prospect under Macedonian rule.

The Last Native Pharaoh: Nectanebo II

While Darius III ruled the Persian Empire and was also, technically, the Pharaoh of Egypt, the last pharaoh of the native Egyptian lineage was Nectanebo II. Nectanebo's reign ended shortly after his forces were defeated by the Persians at the Battle of Pelusium in 343 BCE. This defeat marked the end of native Egyptian control, as the Persian emperor and, by extension, Darius III, continued to rule Egypt from the center of the Persian Empire.

Legend and History

While Darius III is the officially recognized Pharaoh at the time of Alexander's arrival, the ancient legend speaks of a different character, adding intrigue to the historical narrative. According to legend, the last native pharaoh, Nectanebo II, used magical powers to secretly father Alexander, making the legitimacy of Alexander's rule a point of debate. This story, while unverified, has fueled historical debates and romanticized the relationship between Alexander and Egypt.

Conclusion

The conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great was a significant moment in both Greek and Egyptian history. Understanding the role of Darius III as the Pharaoh during this period is essential for grasping the complex political relationships of the time. Whether seen through the lens of historical fact or ancient legend, the legacy of Alexander and the Pharaohs of Egypt continues to captivate historians and scholars alike.